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Mermaids and merman, illustration by Hans Tegner, from the 1900 edition of Fairy Tales, by Hans Christian Andersen. Courtesy of the Folklore Society Library, University College, London; photograph, R.B.
FlemingThe relation between the animal and the human is very close in all folk literature. In the preliterate cultures of the American Indians, the Pacific Islanders, or the Central Africans, the culture heroes who are responsible for the good and the bad in the life of the tribe may upon one occasion appear as animals and upon another as men. Such was true of the ancient gods of Egypt or Greece. The question whether of the American Indian tribes is animal or human apparently makes no difference to those who tell stories about him.Aside from these semidivine creatures, now animal or bird or man as they wish, supernatural and ill-defined creatures, much more difficult to visualize, are also common.
Or their counterparts appear in the legends of a good part of the world. It is hard to define them, for in one place they will appear in full human size, in another as little creatures inhabiting mounds or caves or living under the roots of trees. In some countries they are creatures, helpful to men and women. They reward human services but punish misdeeds.
They marry or consort with human beings. In some traditions they are malevolent creatures, and meetings with them always bring disaster or bad luck. Almost every country has produced its own variety of helpful and harmful creatures. Stories of the activity of witches and devils, or water spirits and the supernatural guardians of mountains or trees vary in details from land to land, but many of the incidents related about them are easily transferred from one to another. Stories of visits to quite other supernatural realms, fairyland, for example, may be told in all their details in Russia or Greece. Are usually considered to be ogres of one kind or another but they may also be considered the most stupid of all beings and may be the subjects of hundreds of numskull anecdotes. Underground creatures like the in “Snow White” are usually helpful and kindly, but other underground creatures bring only disaster.The widespread belief in the return of the dead has resulted in many stories of encounters with or of actual resurrection.
These stories differ greatly in various parts of the world and are much influenced by the current religious ideas. It is likely that in the whole world of traditional literature the belief in ghosts has survived longest.Traditions of historic characters have a tendency to repeat themselves from land to land and, although they are told as facts, may form as definite patterns as any fictional folktale. Such stories as Joseph and Potiphar’s wife or the exposure and ultimate return of the hero appear in many places.
The expected return of from Avalon or of Barbarossa from his cavern are only two examples of a widespread motif of this kind.It is difficult and perhaps impossible to distinguish the explanatory legend from the. Tales explaining the origins of customs or of the shape or nature of various animals and plants, of such distant objects as the stars, or even of the world itself often ascribe such origins to the action of some ancient animal or to some magic transformation. These are often connected with stories of the gods or demigods and may even be a part of the religious beliefs of those who tell them.Generally, legends and traditions of this kind are simple in their form and contain only a single motif or at most two or three.
The problem of proper classification for the purpose of studying these has proved very difficult, for while the materials of these legends and traditions show many interesting parallels and resemblances, they vary greatly from place to place. The relation of these stories to actual history, to mythology, and to the fictional folktale is of much interest to students of folk literature.
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